Biodiversity is a source of significant economic, aesthetic, health, and cultural benefits, which form the foundation for sustainable development. Although estimates vary,[1] there is general scientific consensus that the world is becoming less biologically diverse in terms of genes, species, and ecosystems. However, the role of biological diversity in the sustainable functioning of the biosphere is not well understood. There is little understanding of the social, economic, or ecosystemic consequences of a less biologically diverse world, and scientific knowledge is limited. Scientists estimate that less than 15 percent of all species have been described.
Rapid loss of biodiversity poses a global threat to human well-being. The scale of human impacts on biological diversity is increasing exponentially, primarily because of worldwide patterns of consumption, production, and trade; agricultural, industrial, and settlements development; and population growth.
Biodiversity is not equally distributed throughout the world.[2] Rates of biodiversity loss vary across ecosystems, and ecosystems vary in their level of species richness. For example, tropical ecosystems are estimated to house between 50 and 90 percent of total species.[3] Neither the economic nor the ecosystemic value of biodiversity resources is well understood. In particular, there is insufficient knowledge of the interdependence of species within ecosystems and the impact of the extinction of one species on others. Reducing the rate of biodiversity loss and conserving existing biodiversity as a basis of sustainable development remain major global challenges.
Adoption of the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) as an instrument to address biodiversity conservation and sustainable use recognizes the intrinsic value of biological diversity and its importance for the evolution and sustenance of life support systems of the biosphere. The CBD expresses the Parties' concern that biological diversity is being significantly reduced by certain human activities and notes that it is vital "to anticipate, prevent and attack the causes of significant reduction or loss of biological diversity at source."[4] The CBD also states that "where there is a threat of significant reduction or loss of biological diversity, lack of full scientific certainty should not be used as a reason for postponing measures to avoid or minimize such a threat."[5]
The GEF operates as a mechanism for international cooperation for the purpose of providing new and additional grant and concessional funding to meet the agreed incremental costs of measures to achieve agreed global environmental benefits in biological diversity. Global environmental benefits obtained under the CBD include reduced risks of global biodiversity loss, the enhanced protection of ecosystems and the species they contain, and increased sustainability in the use of biodiversity components.
The GEF's objectives in biological diversity derive from the objectives of the CBD: "the conservation of biological diversity, the sustainable use of its components and the fair and equitable sharing of the benefits arising out of the utilization of genetic resources, including by appropriate access to genetic resources and by appropriate transfer of relevant technologies, taking into account all rights over those resources and to technologies, and by appropriate funding." [6] All GEF funded activities concerning biodiversity will be in full conformity with the guidance provided by the Conference of the Parties to the Convention on Biological Diversity.
The GEF operational strategy in biological diversity incorporates the policy guidance of the COP to the CBD. All GEF-funded activities in biodiversity will be in full conformity with the guidance provided by the COP to the CBD.
Convention context. The COP designated the GEF to serve as the institutional structure to operate the financial mechanism of the CBD on an interim basis. [7] At its first meeting, the COP provided the GEF with guidance on policy, strategy, program priorities, and eligibility criteria, included in the appendix to this chapter.[8][9] This operational strategy is fully consistent with the Convention guidance.
Non-convention context. Only developing-country parties are eligible to receive funding through the financial mechanism of the Convention. When the GEF provides assistance outside the financial mechanism, it will ensure that such assistance is fully consistent with the guidance provided by the COP to the CBD.
The main strategic considerations guiding GEF-financed activities to secure global biodiversity benefits are: (a) integration of the conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity within national and, as appropriate, subregional and regional sustainable development plans and policies; (b) helping to protect and sustainably manage ecosystems through targeted and cost-effective interventions; (c) integration of efforts to achieve global benefits in other focal areas, where feasible, and in the cross-sectoral area of land degradation, primarily desertification and deforestation; (d) development of a portfolio that encompasses representative ecosystems of global biodiversity significance; and (e) that GEF activities will be targeted and designed to help recipient countries achieve agreed biodiversity objectives in strategic and cost-effective ways.
Sustainable achievement of global biodiversity benefits will greatly depend on the extent to which GEF activities are country-driven; respond to programs of national priority and that fulfill the obligations of the Convention; and are related to appropriate national policy frameworks and plans of sectoral, economic, and social development.
Where feasible and cost-effective, activities will be designed to contribute to global environmental benefits in other focal areas and in the cross-sectoral area of land degradation. For example, actions to sequester carbon and minimize land degradation may offer opportunities for biodiversity conservation, and international waters activities may offer opportunities for integrating aquatic biodiversity components.[10]
Land Degradation
Dryland ecosystems contain a significant endowment of plant and animal species and display high habitat diversity. These are under severe periodic droughts which affect them and their resources. Dryland species exhibit notably restrictive geographical ranges and high endemism and have a wide range of morphological, physical, and chemical adaptations to their harsh environment. Drylands also are the center of origin of many important food crops (for example, wild wheat, lentil, barley, olive, and pistachio); are a source of important commercial and industrial products (for example, gums, resins, waxes, oils, and biocides); and provide critical habitat for wildlife and ecosystem diversity. Forests harbor biodiversity; and deforestation through agricultural expansion, urban expansion, unsustainable direct extraction, and fuelwood collection, for example, causes land degradation and biodiversity loss. The GEF will fund activities addressing land degradation issues as they relate to biodiversity issues that:
Portfolio Considerations
A portfolio that provides for a high level of representativeness of global ecosystems will be developed.[11] It is difficult to define a precise sampling technique that would provide for a globally representative biodiversity portfolio because there is uncertainty about the level of species richness and its value within ecosystems; and relationships between ecosystems are uncertain. Therefore, a portfolio will be developed from a broadly representative base of globally important ecosystems including their habitats, while recognizing the potential importance of particular species and endemism-rich ecosystems.[12] Within representative ecosystems, particular attention will be given to the degree of threat (for example, for coastal and marine resources), level of vulnerability (for example, for arid and semi-arid areas, mountain regions, and freshwater systems), and priority status at national and regional levels. [13][14][15]
The GEF's biodiversity operations will be programmed in three categories: (a) operational programs for long-term protection and sustainable use of biodiversity, where the bulk of GEF funding will be concentrated; (b) enabling activities, prepared and scheduled in accordance with operational criteria; and (c) short-term response measures that offer cost-effective opportunities to conserve and sustainably manage biodiversity. All GEF-financed biodiversity activities will promote the use of local and regional expertise.
The GEF will develop operational programs based on ecosystems (including species and genes). There are compelling scientific reasons for addressing biodiversity management within the framework of ecosystems. Ecosystem management allows the integration of scientific knowledge of ecological relationships with that of sociopolitical conditions and values to achieve biodiversity protection and sustainable management. The ecosystem approach also permits the management of biodiversity by taking into account the interrelationships among its components, including species and gene pools. Protection and sustainable management of ecosystems require a long-term commitment and a range of coordinated policy program and project interventions at a national level, a regional level, or both, as well as successful integration into the wider economic, social, and cultural contexts.
Operational programs for long-term biodiversity protection and sustainable use will be initially developed for arid and semi-arid ecosystems; coastal, marine, and freshwater ecosystems; forest ecosystems; and mountain ecosystems.
These ecosystems were selected in full conformity with the COP guidance, and based on criteria of species diversity, endemism, and degree of threat. They take into account the considerations of:
Additional operational programs could be developed for other ecosystems in conformity with the guidance of the COP to the CBD.
Arid and Semi-Arid Ecosystems
Activities in this operational program will focus on the conservation and sustainable use of endemic biodiversity in the dryland ecosystems including grasslands, primarily in Africa, and in mediterranean-type ecosystems, where biodiversity is threatened by increased pressure from more intensified land use, drought, and desertification, often leading to land degradation. GEF-financed activities will emphasize the prevention and control of land degradation through development of sustainable use methods for biodiversity conservation, including the management of freshwater systems, in countries experiencing serious land degradation. Activities will demonstrate integrated approaches to the conservation of representative natural habitats and ecosystems through effective systems of conservation areas, including protected areas, introduction of sustainable land use systems, and strategic interventions to rehabilitate degraded areas. Special attention will be given to the demonstration and application of techniques, tools, and methods to conserve traditional crops and animal species in their original habitats.
Coastal, Marine, and Freshwater Ecosystems
Activities in this operational program will concentrate on the conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity in the coastal, wetland, mangrove, estuarine, marine, and freshwater ecosystems. Projects will involve integrated approaches to coastal area development and lakes and rivers management, and will strengthen the network of conservation areas, including protected areas, to conserve coastal, marine, and freshwater biodiversity. The needs of tropical island ecosystems will receive particular attention. Several activities in this program will be implemented in conjunction with the international waters focal area and will involve international cooperation at the regional level.[16]
Forest Ecosystems
Activities in this operational program will involve the establishment and strengthening of systems of conservation areas, including protected areas, and demonstration and development of sustainable use methods in forestry as part of integrated land management in agricultural and forest landscapes, focusing primarily on tropical and temperate forest ecosystems areas at risk. Particular attention will be given to demonstration and application of techniques to conserve wild relatives of domesticated plants and animals for the sustainable use of biodiversity, conservation of areas of importance for migratory species, strengthening of conservation area networks, and development of sustainable use methods in forestry. Regional projects involving international cooperation will also be supported. Sizable funds from sources other than the GEF (e.g., multilateral, bilateral, and NGOs) are currently devoted to protection and management of forest ecosystems. GEF funds will complement ongoing efforts, as appropriate, and help to scale up and replicate successful initiatives focusing on global objectives, promote best practices, and help design and implement cohesive programmatic approaches.
Mountain Ecosystems
Activities in this operational program will initially address the conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity areas under increasing human pressure and imminent threat of degradation, including the Mesoamerican, Andean, East African, and Himalayan regions and the mountainous regions of the Indochina peninsula, and tropical islands. Through these activities, the GEF will seek to establish sustainable land use practices on mountain slopes in order to protect representative habitats and strengthen the network of representative conservation areas in the alpine, mountain grassland, montane forest zones, and freshwater systems. Activities that link mountain ecosystems with lowland ecosystems through corridors and those that demonstrate and apply best practices for integrated landscape management will be included. Regional activities involving cooperative management of chains of mountains, river basins, and watersheds will also receive support.
Considerations in Developing Operational Programs
Within the framework of each operational program, country-driven, site-specific activities will be developed. These will be based both on information from country-level or regionally based activities currently underway or planned, and on key strategic and policy issues involved in protecting and sustainably managing the ecosystem at the particular site. Each operational program will identify key actions to be undertaken on the basis of country-based information and dialogue. Each operational program will define how the Implementing Agencies will coordinate their efforts both in managing GEF activities and in seeking sufficient funds and opportunities to support the objectives of the operational program through their regular programs. Each operational program will provide a framework for establishing an appropriate balance among institutional strengthening (including technical assistance), investment, and targeted research. Specific activities will differ depending on the ecosystems concerned and site-specific conditions.
Each operational program will encompass, in an integrated manner, two types of measures that are central to biodiversity: (a) long-term protection and (b) sustainable use. Other considerations that will guide the development of activities in each operational program, as appropriate, are: (c) underlying causes and policies, (d) stakeholder involvement, and (e) targeted research.
Biodiversity conservation activities. Initial emphasis of
operational programs will be placed on in situ activities
within and adjacent to conservation areas, including
designated areas of biological importance. Representativeness and
complementarity of ecosystems will be sought. These efforts will take
into account national priority areas identified pursuant to Article 7
of the Convention, as well as scientific assessments completed under
other international conventions or international programs on the
subject.[17] However, countries may seek assistance
to demarcate, identify, and conserve other potentially important
biodiversity reserves, including significant cultural heritage elements.
Conservation activities will be comprised of direct management interventions, planning of resource use as well as promotion of sustainable development alternatives to ensure that livelihoods can be secured in and around the protected areas. Activities will seek to incorporate protected areas into larger landscapes or seascapes. In addition, attention will be given to integrated conservation and development projects to avoid creating "magnets" for immigration in buffer zones and exacerbating threats to biodiversity in the protected areas.
Activities within the framework of operational programs to secure long-term biodiversity protection will include:
Sustainable use of biodiversity. The success of biodiversity
conservation efforts will depend on how well the overall landscape
is managed. It is simply not possible to conserve all species
in a region by using conservation areas alone. Biodiversity conservation
and sustainable use must also be achieved outside the designated
conservation areas, including protected areas, and must be integrated
into the management of the natural and modified surrounding areas.
A range of uses is possible -- from full protection on strict
reserves through various forms of multiple use, with conservation
easements, to full-scale use such as intensive agriculture, forestry,
livestock production, and urban development. Restoration and rehabilitation
of unique habitats under threat in areas of high diversity or
endemism will also contribute to conservation and sustainable
use. Activities that involve biodiversity management within the
productive sectors of an economy are likely to lead to long-term
sustainability because they will help address the underlying causes
of biodiversity loss. Several sectors, such as forestry, agriculture,
fisheries, and tourism draw upon biodiversity assets.
Incremental costs of activities for conservation and sustainable use of biological resources will be developed within national policy and regulatory frameworks and within the context of the operational programs. They will include:
Sustainable use of biological resources is a prerequisite for their long-term conservation. However, in most cases, it is not possible to accurately predict the impacts on ecosystems, habitats, species, or gene pools of innovative approaches to conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity. In addition, the risks of introducing perverse incentives that lead to overharvesting and destruction of natural resources are significant. Activities that involve harvesting of wild resources (for example, wildlife, nontimber forest products) pose special risks. It is, therefore, a priority to develop sustainable use methods that do not degrade biodiversity in agriculture, forestry, and fisheries. Therefore, sustainable use activities will require close monitoring of: species selection; information on current occurrence, density, and other demographic parameters of biological resources, including yield studies and regeneration surveys; and actual impacts of harvesting, so that harvesting levels and methods can be adjusted as needed.
Underlying causes and policies. Biodiversity loss occurs
through direct and indirect causes. These causes are typically
multiple and synergistic. They involve complex interactions of
demographic, social, ecological, economic, and cultural factors.
[18] The levels of causality may include proximate
causes (where human action, such as land clearing, directly induces
biodiversity loss), intermediate causes (such as inappropriate economic
policies and legal ownership and tenure circumstances), and ultimate
causes (such as population growth, poverty, low standards of living,
lack of social development which increases pressure on natural
resources, and overconsumption of resources).[19]
Addressing all underlying causes of biodiversity loss is beyond the GEF's mandate and ability.[20] Yet recipient countries must ascertain the range and importance of causal factors and their role in biodiversity loss and its amelioration. For example, appropriate adjustments in economic and social development policies may offer cost-effective, long-term solutions to biodiversity protection problems.[21] Although the GEF will concentrate its efforts on addressing the proximate and intermediate causes of biodiversity loss, it will, through the Implementing Agencies' regular country assistance and awareness-building programs, facilitate efforts to address the ultimate causes of biodiversity loss.
Within the context of operational programs, GEF-financed activities will include:
Stakeholder involvement and social issues. Issues of poverty,
social development, sustainable livelihoods, and access to common
property resources are closely linked to biodiversity conservation
and sustainable use. Participation of affected stakeholders, including
indigenous peoples, is of central importance, especially in the
case of communities that reside inside protected areas and their
immediate surroundings.[23] Effective involvement
of local people in GEF's biodiversity activities must be based on
knowledge of their social, cultural, and economic context and their
impacts on biological resources. Important factors in designing strategies
for effective participation of stakeholders in global biodiversity
objectives include access to land and other resources; governance
systems relating to conflict management; distribution of benefits
and accountability for conserving key resources; and demographic
composition, gender roles, and social organization processes that
influence human and environmental interactions.
GEF activities will incorporate the lessons from implementing participatory approaches into community-based management of biodiversity projects. These include integrated conservation and development projects in which social needs are integrated into project design; comanagement of resources, through contracts or negotiations with governments that define each stakeholder's responsibilities in managing the resource; and devolution of management to local groups and nongovernmental organizations (NGOs). Local, national, and international NGOs have played important roles by providing needed expertise in facilitating stakeholder participation and conducting scientific and technical studies, inventories, social assessments, and community-based outreach.
Targeted research. The GEF will fund targeted research,
including information collection, analysis, and dissemination,
only in the context of the operational programs. Targeted research
will be guided by the following considerations:
Potential areas for targeted research in biodiversity could include, for example, implementation of rapid (ecological/biological) assessment methods; technology applications for sustainable resource use in agriculture, forestry, and fisheries; incorporation of social dimensions in the management of conservation areas, including protected areas; and assistance to existing biodiversity research and monitoring institutions.[25] GEF funds will not be used to finance basic research or to create new research institutions. The GEF also will not fund the recurrent costs of research.
The concept of "enabling activities" has not been formally adopted by the COP of the CBD, although many enabling activities, as described generically in the first chapter, are of direct relevance to biodiversity and are recognized as priority activities by the CBD.[26]
Enabling activities in biodiversity prepare the foundation for design and implementation of effective response measures required to achieve Convention objectives.[27] They will assist recipient countries to develop national strategies, plans, or programs referred to in Article 6 of the CBD, and to identify components of biodiversity together with processes and activities likely to have significant adverse impacts on conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity pursuant to Article 7 of the CBD. They will normally involve the review and assessment of information and will assist a recipient country to gain a better understanding of the nature and scope of its biodiversity assets and issues as well as a clearer sense of the options for the sustainable management and conservation of biodiversity.[28] Enabling activities include supporting country-driven activities that take stock of, or inventory existing biodiversity by relying on national programs and studies, without new primary research. The activities also include identifying options and establishing priorities to conserve and sustainably use biodiversity; preparing and developing biodiversity planning exercises, such as national strategies, action plans, and sectoral plans; and disseminating of information through national communications to the CBD.[29]
Many countries already have a significant quantity of useful information and a number of assessments of biodiversity which can be utilized in planning. In addition, there exists a variety of approaches and practices for planning biodiversity conservation and sustainable use. It is essential to promote synergy and coordination among such initiatives within the recipient countries and among donors. When enabling activities are aimed at providing countries with the basic information on which to act, they will normally be regarded as incremental and will be funded on the basis of full cost reimbursement. Support to further develop in-country and sectoral plans, programs, and activities in light of global objectives will be based on incremental cost financing.
As a follow-up to enabling activities, some Parties may require further capacity building to implement agreed activities, to establish or strengthen institutional and legal frameworks, or to undertake action-oriented research to conserve biodiversity. Capacity building for such follow-up will be undertaken within the context of operational programs.
Operational criteria will be developed:
Proposed activities that are not an integral part of an operational program but are still cost-effective, or that enable the GEF to respond to an urgent need, or seize a promising country-driven opportunity in a timely manner are also eligible for support. It would be unwise to reject such activities merely because they are not part of an agreed operational program if their costs are relatively low, the outcomes relatively certain, and their urgency or priority unchallenged.
The operational criteria to guide consideration of proposed activities under short-term response measures include:
Short-term response measures, like activities developed within the framework of operational programs, will be country-driven and consistent with national plans and strategies, may involve establishment of systems to provide for recurrent costs, and will be supported by measures to ensure the sustainability of biodiversity benefits.
Eligible activities under short-term response measures could include, for example, those with a focus on threatened or endangered species or ecosystems, actions to reduce immediate threats to migratory species, and programs to facilitate implementation of unforeseen opportunities for national action and international cooperation to reduce specific risks of biodiversity loss. Over time, some short-term response measures may also help the development of new operational programs.
The operational strategy for biodiversity sets forth an approach for implementing the GEF's mandate in biodiversity, in full conformity with the guidance provided by the COP of the CBD. It provides a framework for the development and implementation of GEF-financed activities to allow recipient countries to address the complex global challenge of biodiversity conservation and sustainable use. It also provides a framework for systematic monitoring and evaluation of the effectiveness of GEF-financed activities.
POLICY, STRATEGY,
PROGRAMME PRIORITIES
and Eligibility Criteria for access
to and utilization of financial resources of the
Convention on Biological Diversity
Financial resources should be allocated to projects that fulfill the eligibility criteria and are endorsed and promoted by the Parties concerned. Projects should contribute to the extent possible to build cooperation at the sub-regional, regional and international levels in the implementation of the Convention. Projects should promote utilization of local and regional expertise. The institutional structure should over time assist all eligible countries to fulfil their obligations under the Convention. Policy and strategy may be revised, as necessary, by the Conference of the Parties.
Only developing countries that are Parties to the Convention are eligible to receive funding upon entry into force of the Convention for them. In accordance with the provisions of the Convention, projects that seek to meet the objectives of conservation of biological diversity and sustainable use of its components are eligible for financial support from the institutional structure.
b) Development of integrated national strategies, plans or programmes for the conservation of biological diversity and sustainable use of its components in accordance with Article 6 of the Convention;
c) Strengthening conservation, management and sustainable use of ecosystems and habitats identified by national governments in accordance with Article 7 of the Convention;
d) Identification and monitoring of wild and domesticated biodiversity components, in particular those under threat, and implementation of measures of their conservation and sustainable use;
e) Capacity-building, including human resource development and institutional development and/or strengthening, to facilitate the preparation and/or implementation of national strategies, plans for priority programmes and activities for conservation of biological diversity and sustainable use of its components;
f) In accordance with Article 16 of the Convention, and to meet the objectives of conservation of biological diversity and sustainable use of its components, projects which promote access to, transfer of and cooperation for joint development of technology;
g) Projects that promote the sustainability of project benefits; that offer a potential contribution to experience in the conservation of biological diversity and sustainable use of its components which may have application elsewhere; and that encourage scientific excellence;
h) Activities that provide access to other international, national and/or private sector funds and scientific and technical cooperation;
i) Innovative measures, including in the field of economic incentives, aiming at conservation of biological diversity and/or sustainable use of its components, including those which assist developing countries to address situations where opportunity costs are incurred by local communities and to identify ways and means by which these can be compensated, in accordance with Article 11 of the Convention;
j) Projects that strengthen the involvement of local and indigenous people in the conservation of biological diversity and sustainable use of its components;
k) Projects that promote the conservation and sustainable use of biological diversity of coastal and marine resources under threat. Also, projects which promote the conservation of biological diversity and sustainable use of its components in other environmentally vulnerable areas such as arid and semi-arid and mountainous areas;
l) Projects that promote the conservation and/or sustainable use of endemic species;
m) Projects aimed at the conservation of biological diversity and sustainable use of its components which integrate social dimensions including those related to poverty.
Note: This annex reproduces verbatim Document UNDP/CBD/ COP/1/17, annex I, pages 33 - 34.
1. See World Resources Institute, World Conservation Union, and UnitedNations Environment Programme, especially chapter 2, A 1992 report by theUnited Nations Environment Programme, "Global Biodiversity Strategy: Guidelines for Action to Save, Study, and use Earth's Biotic Wealth Sustainably and Equitably."
2. World Conservation Monitoring Centre (WCMC), Global Biodiversity 1992; Chapman and Hall, UK.
3. Global Biodiversity Strategy chapter 2.
4. Preamble to the Convention on Biological Diversity, 1994.
5. Preamble to the Convention on Biological Diversity, 1994.
6. Convention on Biological Diversity, Article 1.
7. Decision I/2, "Financial Resource and Mechanism," Report of the First Meeting of the Conference of the Parties to the Convention on Biological Diversity, UNEP/CBD/ COP/1/17, February 28, 1995.
8. The first meeting of the Conference of the Parties was held in Nassau, Bahamas, November 28-December 9, 1994.
9. "Policy, Strategy, Programme Priorities and Eligibility Criteria for Access to and Utilization of Financial Resources of the Convention on Biological Diversity" (UNEP/CBD/ COP/1/17; Annex 1, pp. 33-34), referred to hereafter as "Criteria." The full text is included as an appendix to this chapter.
10. Biodiversity concerns cut across the GEF focal areas and cross-sectoral issues:
b) International waters examples include actions seeking prevention of ecological degradation of critical water habitats (wetlands, estuaries, lakes); programs to prevent the introduction of exotic species; and projects that address over exploitation of key marine environments such as coral reefs or of specific species through unsustainable harvesting practices.
c) Ozone depletion examples include the impacts of methyl bromide-based fungicides (ozone-depleting substances) and their impact on biodiversity.
d) Land degradation examples include prevention of land degradation and the link with deforestation and unsustainable agricultural practices.
11. At its first meeting, the Conference of the Parties identified as a program priority "strengthening conservation, management and sustainable use of ecosystems and habitats identified by national Governments, in accordance with article 7 of the Convention." Article 7 of the Convention provides that a contracting party is to identify components of biological diversity important for its conservation and sustainable use having regard to the indicative list of categories set down in Annex I.
The criteria set down in Annex I of the Convention are:
12. There has been considerable academic debate on methodologies to determine relative priorities in global biodiversity, and no consensus has yet been reached. Further efforts will be required in this field, and STAP could be requested to play a role on advising the GEF Secretariat on the scope of priority-setting methods and approaches.
13. Criteria, 4 (k).
14. Criteria, 4 (k).
15. Criteria, paragraphs 3 and 4(a).
16. The recent (1995) Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority/World Bank/IUCN volumes of A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas will provide significant input to this operational program.
17. Although there is no universally agreed classification for establishing the global importance of protected areas, a number of reference materials identify such sites. Efforts could be focused on sites listed in one or more of the following: Directory of Wetlands of International Importance (RAMSAR); World Heritage Sites (as included in the World Heritage Convention); Biosphere Reserves (UNESCO) of international importance and as also recorded by the World Conservation Monitoring Centre (WCMC), Global Biodiversity, 1992; Bird Areas of International Importance (Bird-Life International); Centers of plant diversity, IUCN, 1987, IUCN Threatened Plants Unit, Kew, U.K.; and Global Biodiversity, pp. 66-67; and Regions of Diversity of Crop Plants (WCMC, pp. 338-42). These efforts, while useful in their own right, point out the need to strengthen an overall system for classifying and assessing the global significance of biodiversity sites.
18. See, for example, Economics and the Conservation of Global Biological Diversity: Katrina Brown, David Pearce, Charles Perrings, and Timothy Swanson. Working Paper Number 2 Global Environment Facility. Chapter 3, The Economic Causes of Biodiversity Erosion provides a succinct summary of the key variables affecting biodiversity loss. See also figure 5.1, which provides a schematic summary of factors affecting global biological diversity.
19. R. Cervigni, Incremental Cost of Biodiversity Conservation, CSERGE, 1994. The UN Commission on Sustainable Development is investigating the issue of consumption and production patterns.
20. For example, it is unlikely that the GEF will fund population programs, direct antipoverty interventions, or potable water schemes, even if these were identified as causal factors affecting the deterioration of biodiversity. Such programs would normally be of high national priority and be an integral part of national economic and social development plans and policies.
21. The removal or reduction of economic distortions that are generally beneficial to the economy of a country in question may simultaneously benefit the environment and biodiversity. Case study work at the country level would be able to assess the likely impact of removing economic distortions. Numerous publications testify to this, but see especially D.W. Pearce and J. Warford, World Without End: Environment, Economics and Sustainable Development, (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993).
22. "Criteria", paragraph 4(i).
23. Article 8(j): "Subject to its national legislation, respect, preserve and maintain knowledge, innovations and practices of indigenous and local communities embodying traditional lifestyles relevant for the conservation and sustainable use of biological diversity and promote their wider application with the approval and involvement of the holders of such knowledge, innovations and practices and encourage the equitable sharing of the benefits arising from the utilization of such knowledge, innovations and practices;"
24. This is suggested as an enabling activity by the Inter-Agency Task Force on Biodiversity.
25. The UNEP, in consultation with STAP, is preparing a draft paper on targeted research relating to GEF activities.
26. See the Convention on Biological Diversity: Preamble; Articles 6, 7(b), 12, and 18(2); and CBD guidance (footnote 7): 4(c), (h), and (j).
27. Final Report of the Meeting of the Task Force on GEF Enabling Activities under the CBD, April 5-6, 1995, Nairobi. The task force identified a fourth category of activity: "enabling activities for general use rather than country-specific (for example, development of guidelines for biodiversity planning.") However, such activities also relate to targeted research and, as such, will be reviewed in that context.
28. The GEF Secretariat has established an Inter-Agency Task Force on Biodiversity. It reviews all biodiversity project and activity proposals and undertakes ad hoc review work. The task force was convened in April 1995, to specifically review enabling activities in biodiversity. The CBD Secretariat was invited to chair the meeting, which was hosted by the UNEP on April 5-6, 1995. It reviewed (a) the definition and scope of enabling activities in biodiversity; (b) systems needed to ensure programmatic cohesion and cost effectiveness; and (c) preliminary assessments of norms and standards to be applied in programming resources.
29. Convention on Biological Diversity, Article 26.
30. The GEF will encourage countries to disseminate findings widely within the country and to encourage discussion and debate among all major stakeholders. GEF consultation and participation guidelines (once approved by the Council) will provide a framework for such activities.
31. "Criteria", paragraph 4(k).
32. "Criteria", paragraph 4(k).
33. "Criteria", paragraph 4(i).
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